Book Review

Alex Alvarez, Governments, Citizens, and Genocide: A Comparative and Interdisciplinary Approach. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001. 

John G. Heidenrich, How to Prevent Genocide: A Guide for Policymakers, Scholars, and the Concerned Citizen. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2001.

Roger W. Smith (Emeritus, College of William and Mary) 

Alex Alvarez has written an exemplary book on how and why genocide occurs. His study is lucid, sensitive, and accessible, and his thematic analysis is supported at every point by comparison among twentieth century genocides.

Its strong points are its clear, often elegant, prose, its synthesis of the major literature on genocide, and its insights from criminology that add new understanding of how both organizations and individuals become involved in, and sustain, mass killing. Its limitations involve omissions and underdevelopment -- much more could be done with bystanders, rescuers, and, in particular, on the topic of prevention. One other criticism is that Alvarez perceives genocide in perhaps a too rationalistic framework -- for Alvarez, genocide seems to be all a matter of
calculation. But genocide does have many "irrational" elements: fantasy, scapegoating, rituals of degradation, the quest for purity and salvation.

Alvarez provides a framework for thinking about genocide and illustrates each element in compelling detail. It is the state, he says, that "provides the motive, the impetus, the legitimation, and the ideology for the genocide" (p. 85). But the genocide has to be implemented by bureaucracies, which can be either militaristic or nonmilitaristic. They implement genocide differently, with the former engaged in direct violence, but each emphasizes conformity
and obedience to orders. 

It is the nonmilitaristic organizations, however, that Alvarez is primarily concerned with, and these he illuminates brilliantly by examining the literature on organizational crime. He points out the role of profit as a motivating factor, that criminality tends to increase with the size of the organization, that socialization in organizations leads to a perception that whatever one is doing is normal and routine, not harmful. He notes also that organizations further control individuals by a combination of coercion and reward. 

The state and various institutions are crucial to the commission of genocide, but there is another level: the individual. "At its essence, genocide is about people killing other people" (p. 110). 

How do they do it? By and large, Alvarez argues, they engage in "techniques of neutralization." But these in turn are "reinforced by the larger political and cultural context" (p. 113).  The techniques involve: denial of responsibility, denial of injury, denial of the humanity of the victims, a condemnation of the condemners, an appeal to higher loyalties, and the definition of the situation in such a way that one has no choice but to destroy.  In this way, ordinary, normal people "can in clear conscience commit the most horrific crimes" (p. 129).

State, bureaucracy, individual--these are the major elements in any genocide. But how then can genocide be prevented? Where should our efforts be placed? The author provides the usual "solutions" --early detection and intervention --but does not discuss them at length.

John Heidenrich seeks to provide a guide to policymakers and others about the prevention of genocide. But much of his wide-ranging study demonstrates the difficulty of preventing genocide.  There are limits to trade sanctions: they typically take two years to be effective and some don't work after a decade. He might have mentioned also that they often harm ordinary people rather than put pressure on the genocidal regime. There are limits to covert
action (assassinations, etc.), military intervention, and multinational forces. He might have discussed also major 
limitations in the United Nations -- its decision making, organization, and implementation of measures to prevent genocide. 

His own major idea, though not original, is that the UN needs its own military force, independent of its members' contribution of forces. He describes this as a force of about 5,000 soldiers who would be an international legion of volunteers. These could be raised directly by the UN, or would be private (mercenary armies) hired by the UN on contract. But once we privatize peacekeeping and enforcement, may we not also privatize genocide, with murderous regimes going on the open market for killers?

Heidenrich is very good on why governments should take an active role against genocide. It is a matter of morality, but also of practical political considerations: refugees, war, and the legacy of fear and hate that genocide passes down the generations leading to new episodes of genocide. 

The author also has interesting comments about early warning of genocide. He believes that a number of indicators can be used to predict acts of genocide, but unless one can do this months, even years, in advance, little will be accomplished. The central measure that he would use is the "identification of group identities and how they are being politically manipulated" (p. 81).

If we are going to prevent genocide, to what extent do we need to understand why it occurs? Heidenrich provides only general psychological explanations involving the quest for meaning and identity, with brief observations about political manipulation.  These sections of his book would have been strengthened had he drawn upon Ervin Staub's The Roots of Evil and Herbert Hirsch's Genocide and the Politics of Memory. His explanation for why genocide is committed, and the solution to it, is that it has to do with finding meaning in our lives. Without unconditional love, 
and respect for human life, genocide will continue. The solution to genocide is not military intervention nor democratization, but spiritual reawakening. Perhaps, but when and how? 

This a a thoughtful, humane, and optimistic book that leads us to consider most of the proposals for the prevention of genocide.  What is striking, however, is that rather than being a guide to the prevention of genocide (as his title suggests), it is actually a cautionary tale. The author is too honest not to be subversive of his own desires and much of what scholars have written. His work is driven by moral urgency and an optimistic outlook, yet he carefully assesses the strengths and limitations of all the proposals for the prevention of genocide. How to Prevent Genocide is an honest book, but one that, in the end, offers little comfort. But in that, it is not alone.